Courtesy James W. Lair, Texas, and Noah Vang, St. By , the Secret War was weighing heavily on the Hmong and the people of Laos. The estimated death toll for Hmong soldiers this year alone was 3,, with 6, more wounded.
More and more boys were becoming involved; the average age of Hmong recruits that year was Throughout , Long Cheng air base was pounded constantly by artillery from massive guns hidden in the surrounding hills. Meanwhile, American opposition to the wars in Southeast Asia mounted, even as Pres. US planes dropping food and military supplies to friendly remote military posts in Laos, early s.
Lair, Texas. In February, a cease-fire and political peace treaty was signed in Paris, requiring the US and all foreign powers to withdraw all military activities from Laos.
More than , Hmong became refugees in their own homelands. About 50, Hmong civilians had been killed or wounded in the war. Yang Long giving instructions to soldiers who will be trained as radio operators in Long Cheng air base in Laos, late s.
Courtesy Yang Long, St. Vang Pao and about 2, Hmong military forces and family members were airlifted from Long Cheng air base to Thailand. As many as 30, other Hmong crowded into Long Cheng, hoping for escape. The official US military death total in Vietnam exceeded 58, Since , the war had displaced hundreds of thousands of Hmong and other ethnic minority families and often they were relocated to locations developed by US aid workers. Photo late s. Courtesy Capt. Vang Neng, St.
After overthrowing the Laotian monarchy, the Pathet Lao launched an aggressive campaign to capture or kill Hmong soldiers and families who sided with the CIA.
Thousands of Hmong were evacuated or escaped on their own to Thailand. Thousands more who had already gone to live deep in the jungle were left to fend for themselves, which led to the creation of the Chao Fa and Neo Hom freedom fighters movements. Many men also took up arms again to protect their families as they crossed the heavily patrolled Mekong River to safety in Thailand. The first Hmong family to resettle in Minnesota arrived in November The largest wave came after the passage of the US Refugee Act of In , the Buddhist monastery at Wat Tham Krabok—the last temporary shelter for 15, Hmong remaining in Thailand—closed.
The census recorded more than , Hmong in the United States. More than 66, of that number lived in Minnesota, most of them in or near the Twin Cities—the largest urban population of Hmong in America. Toward the middle of May , thousands of Hmong swarmed into the air base at Long Cheng in hopes of being evacuated.
The decision to airlift Gen. Vang Pao out of Laos, along with other high-ranking military officers and their families, came from top US government officials.
About 2, people were evacuated to Thailand. Those left behind had to trek on foot. The first Hmong refugees began arriving in the US in late , mostly sponsored by religious groups and non-profit organizations.
Refugee arrivals peaked at 27, in , and decreased to less than 5, by The numbers began increasing again in , with more than 10, Hmong arriving in In the early s many UN refugee camps in Thailand were closed and Hmong who remained there were forced to move to a non-UN camp at the Thai Buddhist temple Wat Tham Krabok, where suffering continued, especially isolation from not being allowed to go outside of the camp.
For survival and permission to cross out of the camp and local areas, many Hmong refugees became Thai citizens Hmong Thai by paying sums of money borrowed from relatives. Through pleas for asylum brought by Hmong human rights groups in the U.
The remaining Hmong still have no official status in Thailand and the Thai government has tried to force them back to Laos where they fear for their safety. The year marks the relocation of Hmong out of Wat Tham Krabok to a more isolated place in Thailand where many Hmong are deprived access to join families in the U.
Lee and Pfeifer, Hmong is a member of the Miao-Yao Hmong-Mien language family, considered unrelated to other languages. Hmong-Mien has been at times included as a branch of Chinese-Tibetan or Austro-Tai families, though increasingly is thought by scholars to have developed independently. Though a minority language in China, Hmong may have influenced spoken Chinese.
For more than years, Hmong has been a spoken language, though a written form may have existed long ago. Wri tten Hmong using the RPA script is not universally accepted or understood and may not be the most effective way to communicate. Mote, Hmong is an advanced oral language and highly expressive; it includes proverbs, poem-songs, plain language of morality tales and ancestral stories, flowery speech of elders, code speech of sweethearts, and antique language of wedding and funeral rituals.
In spoken Hmong, ideas are wrapped in words in a non-linear way. Hmong is tonal, so that the meaning of the word changes when pronounced differently. In addition, Hmong is mono-syllabic so one syllable represents one word or meaning.
More people speak White Hmong. The differences in dialects are due to the geographic separation of Hmong living in China. In Laos, the Hmong lived more closely to each other and learned to communicate and understand each other across the dialects.
The differences between White and Green Hmong can be compared to the kinds that exist between British and American English. Many older Hmong do not speak English and may not be literate in the Hmong language.
Increasingly, American-born Hmong are not fluent speakers of Hmong. Some efforts are made mainly in states with high concentration of Hmong such as California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin to stem the loss by offering language classes to younger people and preserving language in writing.
There are some university-level courses offered in the language. However, in relation to the overall Hmong population across the US there are few resources available to preserve Hmong language due to barriers in planning and funding language and cultural classes. Traditionally a Hmong name was simply the given name. People would introduce themselves using their given name and by telling which clan they were from.
Eventually, the clan became included in the name. The Green Hmong and White Hmong share some clan names. Hmong Cultural Center, Traditionally in Asia, the clan name would be spoken first followed by the given name.
Many children born in the US are given a Hmong name with an American nickname, or an American name and a Hmong nickname. If later on, the child is ill or has misfortune, a shaman may determine that the wrong name was given and give another one. It is common for the same names to be used by both genders. Married men and fathers usually receive an adult name added to the name they were given as a child. Traditionally, Hmong men receive their adult names after the first child is born.
If his last name is Vue, his full name would then be Nao Vang Vue. In the US, changing a name can be complicated and so male babies are more commonly given their adult name at birth. Most Hmong men prefer to be called by their adult name. For example, status comes with roles like mayor of the village, district chief, shaman, herbalist or clan leader. Within a lineage, there is an elder man, usually the oldest living descendant, who is the head leader, assuming major responsibilities over his lineage, resolving problems and conducting group ceremonies.
Elders, shamans and spiritual leaders are held in very high regard. While having a big family is valued, it does not necessarily lead to higher status.
Traditionally a woman has prestige because her husband has social status. Secondly, she gains status by having lots of sons.
If she has only daughters, then she does not gain prestige. As she ages, a woman may lose some status with more marital conflicts. In the United States, the changing roles between the young and the old has altered the traditional social structure, with older members relying on the younger people for language and income assistance.
Older Hmong males, especially, may suffer loss of social status and feelings of family fragmentation and isolation, leading to loss of self esteem and despair. Older Hmong females may feel helpless because they are uneducated, do not have job skills, experience a language barrier, and therefore are unable to earn enough income to support their children and family. People greet each other verbally and men shake hands.
Shaking hands is a new behavior for Hmong women and they may be embarrassed shaking hands with a male or holding hands too tightly during a handshake. Traditionally, Hmong women who are close to each other share hugs as that of American greetings. Hmong Cultural Center, To be respectful, one must ask to speak with the head of the household, usually the father, when conversing with a Hmong family. Hmong people tend to be humble and may not want to express their emotions in front of others.
For traditional Hmong, making direct eye contact is considered inappropriate and rude. A person may look down or away rather than looking directly at the other person or into their eyes while talking or listening. To smile when meeting a Hmong person is considered warm, welcoming and friendly, though laughing or speaking roughly may be considered a sign of insincerity and rudeness. It is very common for Hmong families to visit one another without setting up an appointment.
A family may show up unexpectedly and still be warmly welcomed inside. It is considered inappropriate to tell the visitors there is no time to visit. When entering a Hmong home, a seat or chair will be offered. It is considered to be impolite to simply decline a drink, food or gift offered to you. When entering a Hmong home during mealtime, guests will be invited to join the family in eating.
Whether the guest wants to eat or not, he or she should take part in the meal, just taking a bite or two will make the family happy. Otherwise, the family will stop eating and will talk to the guest until he or she leaves. The Hmong place of honor at the table is midway on the side. For important ceremonies, the head of the table in not on midway on the side but is at the end corner of the side that is closest to where the altar is placed.
It is standard etiquette after dinner not to linger at the table. It is traditional and good manners to send guests away from a meal with food, leftovers, to take home with them. Before entering a Hmong home, ask if visitors are allowed to enter. Traditional families may have just had a shaman perform a ritual when a woman has given birth, or a ritual to get rid of bad spirits. For a period of time following this ritual, visitors are not allowed to come into the house, wear shoes and carry handbags into the house.
Watch for a taboo sign outside the front of the house indicating the family should not be disturbed because the house is being protected from evil spirits. The sign may look like a cross, made of sticks with some green leaves, or may consist of a simple cluster of green leaves. A white or black woven octagon shaped basket made of bamboo or plastic may be placed next to the leaves. Upon observing this sign, do not knock or enter the house. Most traditional Hmong elders, especially men, do not want strangers to touch their heads, or those of their children, due to their religious beliefs and personal values.
This is still practiced by some clan members. Hmong Cultural Center, As well as uniting a man and a woman, the Hmong marriage rituals unite 2 families in a formal relationship. The couple may come together in various ways, including mutual consent, elopement, or parental arrangement. Force or bride-capture is becoming rare these days in Laos and almost unheard of in the United States.
Hmong are restricted from marrying someone in their same clan. A person can marry someone in any of the other clans as well. Marrying someone who a family disapproves of can bring shame and bad reputation not just for the individual but for the family too. The negotiation and gift of bride wealth is a tradition still practiced by most Hmong in the United States, and can amount to a large sum of money and other gifts.
The groom enlists the help of his male clan relatives to raise the dowry. A couple may elope if the girl is trying to avoid an unwanted union or when the parents do not consent to the union of a couple who wish to be together. Catch-hand marriages are somewhat controversial in the US and are cases in which the male and his relatives take the girl, either willingly or by force to be married.
To make elopements and catch-hand marriages legitimate, the bride price would be negotiated and paid afterward. In Laos, men may marry multiple wives, but due to the custom of bride price, polygamy has been mostly restricted to wealthy men. The husband traditionally gets custody of the children in cases of splits or divorce this is still the norm in the US , though traditionally divorce is not common. It was somewhat common in Laos and Thailand for a younger woman to marry an older man.
Many youth, especially girls, would be married by the time they were In the United States, Hmong men often wait to marry until their late teens or early twenties when they are finished with their education, though it is still relatively common for girls to marry in their middle teens. Traditionally, the stigma of being called an old maid is a factor for girls marrying very young. In general, Hmong believe a couple is ready for marriage when they are able to handle the responsibilities, socially and economically, of having a family.
A strict protocol is to be followed for the marriage ceremony, which centers on showing respect to both families. If the formalities are not followed disrespect is shown to both sets of parents, and can bring shame to the families. A wedding serves to honor the couple and their families and to preserve a continuation of Hmong culture and community. The marriage event is the creation of a new family, a bond between the couple and the families, and a strengthening of past family and community connections in the people present.
The traditional wedding itself can last days, with chant readings and feasting. In marriage, a young couple maintains a deep connection with family, often finding among kin financial assistance, shared living space, childcare, and guidance. Powerful roles exist for men and women in Hmong culture, though in the US there is disruption in gender roles based on economic need and acceptance of American ways.
Hmong women in the US are more active and in positions of power outside the home than they traditionally have been. In some cases, marriages have broken up and the risk of domestic violence has increased in the face of pressure brought by changes in gender status.
Traditionally, girls had a lower status than boys. Men have a higher status than women publicly, while women hold their power more privately. Traditionally, women are hard working and hospitable, primarily caring for the household and raising children, not going to school or holding a job outside the home.
The head of the household in a Hmong family is usually the father, though the mother also has a highly respected role at home and in some ways, especially in child rearing and daily household affairs, she is the leader of the family. Women gain more power in the household as they age. Usually the father makes most of the important decisions for the family. But sometimes, the male head of the immediate household involves relatives including uncles, cousins, or even clan leaders in important decisions.
Men are entrusted with performing rituals of ancestor worship, such as calling the names of ancestors during occasions like New Year, weddings, christenings, new harvests, and family feasts, invoking the dead kin to take part in these events and bring protection and good fortune to the family and household.
When a man and woman grow old and unable to perform all the responsibilities as heads of household, their son and his wife assume the roles. Traditionally, it is considered inappropriate for the opposite genders to sit too close to one another when conversing. To avoid misinterpretations, a male should keep a distance between himself and a female when in conversation or in any type of encounter. Kinship is based on marriage and descent. Hmong people are traditionally not individualistically oriented, but identify the self as a member of the family, clan and community.
Hmong culture emphasizes relationships between relatives and clan members, with respect for elders and strong families. Remembering ancestors, their accomplishments and their sufferings, and preserving traditional ways are highly important. Traditionally the Hmong are a patrilineal society with extended households of married sons and their families. The clan is the primary organization of the Hmong who gain lifetime clan membership and relations passed from father to children through birth or adoption.
There was no written script until western missionaries devised one in the early s. Previously the Hmong maintained a purely oral culture.
Religion The Hmong are traditionally animists believing in spirits and the supernatural world, defined as the world that cannot be seen by human eyes. Contact with the spirit world is made through a shaman, a religious and a medical leader, similar to a Native American medicine man or woman.
Many Hmong living in America continue to practice their traditional religious beliefs while others have joined Christian churches. Arrival in U. He is now a family man with three daughters of his own.
Koua is an emerging leader within the Hmong community. He will be learning Spanish in the near future to better serve and communicate with his Spanish speaking students. Although busy with his current job and three little ones, he still tries to find time to enjoy the outdoors and considers himself a part-time professional fisherman. After all, he could speak and understand the language. He believes that young Hmong people, many of whom were born in the U.
0コメント