Basically, they tell people what to do. Imperative sentences usually end with a period but can occasionally end with an exclamation point. Commands are a type of sentence in which someone is being told to do something. There are three other sentence types: questions, exclamations and statements. Command sentences usually, but not always, start with an imperative bossy verb because they tell someone to do something. As in the examples mentioned before, has is used with a third person singular pronoun.
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Skip to content April 22, Joe Ford. Cross-linguistically, the most pervasively grammaticalized imperative-hortative is the imperative second singular, the order or request to just one addressee. The map distinguishes between four types of imperative-hortative systems. The basic parameter is what we will call the formal homogeneity of the system, but we will also need two interlinked auxiliary notions, viz.
As to the notion of homogeneity, two imperative-hortative forms will be called homogeneous if they are formed using the same kind of morphological or syntactic means. The following parameters are relevant: i is the morphology or the syntax dedicated to the imperative or hortative? Note that in determinations of morphological homogeneity, we allow zero morphemes.
In some cases it can be difficult to decide whether a marker is bound morphological or free syntactic — see Creissels : , , who claims that for West African languages what are traditionally called pronouns should be analyzed as prefixes.
In terms of maximality and minimality the map distinguishes between four systems. The first type shown on the map includes languages with a maximal system and no minimal one. An example is Hungarian.
Here there is complete homogeneity: all of the morphology is suffixal and none is fully dedicated, for the forms also have a subordinate subjunctive use. Note that the slot for the first singular remains empty. This particle is optional for the other persons. So one could say that Hungarian even has two maximal imperative-hortative systems: one with hadd for all six persons, and one without hadd for all but the first singular.
The second type is that of languages that have a minimal system, but no maximal one. Consider the system of the intransitive imperative-hortatives of Soninke Western Mande ; Mali , Senegal. The imperative second singular consists of the bare stem with no personal pronoun. Since this strategy is not found for any other person, it qualifies as a minimal system. For the other persons there is no one strategy; hence there is no maximal system.
The second person plural combines the stem with a special form of the second person pronoun. The third type of language shown on the map has both a minimal and a maximal system. In Lingala Bantu ; Democratic Republic of Congo the imperative second singular consists of the root of the verb, followed by a high tone suffix —a. This constitutes a minimal system. In order to express an order or a request to more than one addressee, Lingala resorts to what Meeuwis : 29 calls a subjunctive strategy; it is formally different person-number prefix, no high tone on the suffix and it has a wider semantic range.
This subjunctive codes not only orders and requests addressed to the second plural but to all persons, including the second singular Meeuwis : 29, and p. Thus Lingala also has a maximal imperative-hortative system. The fourth type of language has neither a maximal nor a minimal system. Meadow Mari Uralic ; Russia has suffixal second person imperatives.
Third person hortatives have the same structure, and Sebeok and Ingemann : list only one paradigm, comprising both the second and third person forms. This system is neither minimal nor maximal. The map shows that most languages have neither a minimal nor a maximal strategy.
Put positively, they have a strategy common to the second singular and plural, optionally including also the first plural or the third person, but not both the first plural and the third person.
This strategy is found across the world. The only area in which it does not seem particularly common is eastern Eurasia. The maximal strategy is also well represented. The only clear area where it is absent is central Europe.
The strategy does occur in Irish , but then it skips the central area, to show up again in the Balkans — as a Balkanism Ammann and van der Auwera — and in Finno-Ugric, in both the north with e. Estonian , and the south with Hungarian ; finally we land in eastern Eurasia, an area for which it seems most typical. The minimal strategy is most typical for an area extending from West Africa to central Congo.
There it occurs in different families of Niger-Congo : e. This is also the area that is typical for having both a minimal and a maximal system, this time drawing from even more widely divergent genetic groups, with e. There are two main problems.
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